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» Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy   - Online philosophy reference work, articles are authored and updated by experts in the field. Edited by Edward Zalta.




» Abstract Objects - Survey of attempts to draw the distinction between concrete and abstract objects; by Gideon Rosen.




» Action - Theories about intentional action and agency; by George Wilson.




» Actualism - The thesis that there are no merely possible entities; by Christopher Menzel.




» Adorno, Theodor - Life and work of 20th century German philosopher and critical theorist; by Lambert Zuidervaart.




» Aesthetic Judgment - Philosophical theories about judgments of taste; by Nick Zangwill.




» Alan M. Turing - Life and work of philosopher and mathematician Alan Mathison Turing; by Andrew Hodges.




» Albert of Saxony - Life and work of 14th century German logician and philosopher; by Joël Biard.




» Alcmaeon - Life and work of early Greek medical writer and philosopher-scientist; by Carl Huffman.




» Alfred North Whitehead - By A. D. Irvine.




» Analysis - The historical development and conceptual structure of philosophical analysis; by Michael Beaney.




» The Analysis of Knowledge - Survey of analyses of the concept of knowledge, including justified true belief and the Gettier problem; by Matthias Steup.




» Ancient Skepticism - Two movements in ancient philosophy, Pyrrhonism, and Academic Skepticism. By Leo Groarke.




» Animal Consciousness - By Colin Allen of Texas A & M, addressing the qualitative or phenomenological nature of experience.




» Archytas - Life and work of fourth century BC Greek mathematician, political leader and philosopher; by Carl Huffman.




» Aristotle's Ethics - Discussion of Aristotle's ethical views; by Richard Kraut.




» Aristotle's Logic - Survey of Aristotle's logical work, focus on the "Organon," syllogistic, and dialectic. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Robin Smith.




» Aristotle's Metaphysics - Aristotle's notions of category and substance; by S. Marc Cohen.




» Aristotle's Political Theory - By Fred D. Miller, Jr of Bowling Green State University.




» Aristotle's Psychology - Recounts the principal and distinctive claims of Aristotle's psychological writings, especially "De Anima." By Christopher Shields of the University of Colorado.




» Aristotle's Rhetoric - Discussion of one of Aristotle's major works; by Christof Rapp.




» Arthur Prior - Detailed biographical article by B. Jack Copeland of the University of Canterbury.




» Arthur Schopenhauer - Life and work of 19th century German philosopher; by Robert Wicks.




» Artifact - By Risto Hilpinen of the University of Miami.




» Automated Reasoning - Survey of automated deduction and theorem proving; by Frederic Portoraro.




» Baruch Spinoza - Life and work of 17th century Dutch Rationalist philosopher; by Steven Nadler.




» Bayes' Theorem - Discussion of a formula to calculate conditional probabilities which figures in subjectivist approaches to epistemology; by James Joyce.




» Bayesian Epistemology - Epistemological movement based on Bayesian confirmation and decision theory; by William Talbott.




» Behaviorism - By George Graham of University of Alabama at Birmingham.




» Being and Becoming in Modern Physics - Discusses implications of general relativity for the philosophy of time; by Steven Savitt.




» Benjamin Peirce - Life and work of 19th century mathematician and philosopher of mathematics; by Ivor Grattan-Guinness and Alison Walsh.




» Biodiversity - Discussion of philosophical issues related to biological diversity; by Daniel P. Faith.




» Biological Altruism - Discussion of how altruistic behavior by organisms fits with the theory of evolution; by Samir Okasha.




» The Biological Notion of Self and Non-self - History and discussion of the notion of the immune self; by Alfred Tauber.




» Bosanquet, Bernard - William Sweet of St. Francis Xavier University introduces the absolute idealist.




» Bradley, F. H. - By Stewart Candlish of the University of Western Australia.




» Brentano's Theory of Judgement - Discussion of Franz Brentano's foundation for logic and epistemology; by Johannes Brandl.




» Bruno Bauer - Life and work of 19th century German philosopher; by Douglas Moggach.




» Category Theory - Jean-Pierre Marquis of the University of Montreal introduces the general mathematical theory of structures and systems of structures.




» Causal Processes - Bertrand Russell, Wesley Salmon, and conserved quantities. By Phil Dowe of the University of Tasmania.




» Charles Hartshorne - Life and work of 20th Century metaphysician and philosopher of religion; by Dan Dombrowski.




» Charles Sanders Peirce - Life and work of 19th century American logician and philosopher; by Robert Burch.




» Church-Turing Thesis - Jack Copeland of the University of Canterbury, New Zealand outlines this frequently misunderstood thesis.




» Classical Logic - Introduction to classical logic, including completeness and Löwenheim-Skolem theorems; by Stewart Shapiro.




» Cognitive Science - The study of mind and intelligence. By Paul Thagard of the University of Waterloo.




» Coherence Theory of Truth - The truth of any (true) proposition consists in its coherence with some specified set of propositions. By James O. Young.




» Collapse Theories - Survey of the dynamical reduction program; by Giancarlo Ghirardi.




» Color - Metaphysical and epistemological accounts of color. By Barry Maund of the University of Western Australia.




» The Computational Theory of Mind - The philosophical theopry that the mind is, or functions like, a computer; by Steven Horst.




» Confucius - The life and work of the Chinese philosopher and educator; by Jeffrey Riegel.




» Connectionism - Movement in cognitive science which hopes to explain human intellectual abilities using artificial neural networks. By James W. Garson of the University of Houston.




» Consciousness and Intentionality - Discussion of the connection between phenomenal consciousness and intentionality; by Charles Siewert.




» Consequentialism - The view that normative properties depend only on consequences; by Walter Sinnott-Armstrong.




» Constitutionalism - Philosophical survey of the idea that government should be limited in its powers by law; by Wil Waluchow.




» Constructive Mathematics - By Douglas Bridges from Waikato University.




» Contemporary Approaches to the Social Contract - By Fred D'Agostino.




» Contractarianism - By Ann E. Cudd, University of Kansas.




» Conventionality of Simultaneity - By Allen I. Janis, University of Pittsburgh.




» The Copenhagen Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics - First interpretation of quantum mechanics due to Nields Bohr; by Jan Faye.




» The Correspondence Theory of Truth - The thesis that propositions are made true in virtue of corresponding to facts; by Marian David.




» Cosmology and Theology - Deals with the cosmological argument. By John Leslie of the University of Guelph.




» Cosmology: Methodological Debates 1932-48 - Discusses philosophical views about cosmology in the 1930s and 1940s; by George Gale.




» Cosmopolitanism - The view that all human beings belong to a single community; by Pauline Kleingeld and Eric Brown.




» Counterfactual Theories of Causation - Discussion of analysis of causal statements in terms of counterfactual conditionals; by Peter Menzies.




» Curry's Paradox - Discussion of a semantic paradox due to Haskell B. Curry; by J. C. Beall.




» Dante Alighieri - Life and work of 13th century Italian poet and philosopher; by Winthrop Wetherbee.




» David Hume - Life and work of 18th century Scottish philosopher; by William Edward Morris.




» Death - Discussion of philosophical issues about death; by Steven Luper.




» The Definition of Morality - Discussion of various descriptive and normative definitions of the term; Bernard Gert.




» Deflationary Theory of Truth - According to the deflationary theory of truth, to assert that a statement is true is just to assert the statement itself. By Daniel Stoljar.




» Descartes' Epistemology - By Lex Newman of the University of Nebraska, Lincoln.




» Descartes' Modal Metaphysics - Interpretations of René Descartes' ontology of necessities and possibilities; by David Cunning.




» Descartes' Ontological Argument - Discussion of René Descartes ontological proof of the existence of God; by Lawrence Nolan.




» Desert - Moral issues of desert (punishment, success) and justice; by Owen McLeod.




» Determinates vs. Determinables - A distinction introduced by W. E. Johnson to apply, e.g., to red and colored; by David H. Sanford.




» Dialetheism - Dialeth(e)ism is the view that there are true contradictions. By Graham Priest of the University of Queensland.




» Disjunction - Theory and history of the binary connective 'or'; by Ray Jennings.




» Distributive Justice - By Julian Lamont, University of Queensland.




» Divine Illumination - Augustine's doctrine described by Robert Pasnau of the University of Colorado.




» Doing vs. Allowing Harm - Views on the moral difference between doing harm and allowing harm; by Frances Howard-Snyder.




» Donald Davidson - Jeff Malpas of the University of Tasmania.




» Egalitarianism - The view that people should get the same or be treated the same; by Richard Arneson.




» Eliminative Materialism - The view that some or all of the mental states posited by common-sense do not actually exist; by William Ramsey.




» Environmental Ethics - Branch of ethics dealing with the moral relationship of humans to the environment; by Andrew Brennan and Yeuk-Sze Lo.




» Epiphenomenalism - Discusses the view that mental events are caused by physical events in the brain, but have no effects upon any physical events. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by William S. Robinson.




» Episteme and Techne - Discussion of the distinction between knowledge and craft, or art in ancient philosophy; by Richard Parry.




» Epistemological Problems of Perception - Discussion of how sense experience justifies or warrants beliefs about the physical world; by Lawrence BonJour.




» The Epistemology of Religion - By Peter Forrest.




» The Epsilon Calculus - Discussion of David Hilbert's development of this type of logical formalism with emphasis on proof-theoretic methods; by Jeremy Avigad and Richard Zach.




» Equality - Survey of social and political equality; by Stefan Gosepath.




» Events - Survey of philosophical views on the character and status of events; by Roberto Casati and Achille Varzi.




» Everett's Relative-State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics - Describes Everett's attempt to solve the measurement problem by dropping the collapse dynamics from the standard von Neumann-Dirac theory of quantum mechanics. By Jeffrey A. Barrett.




» Evolutionary Epistemology - Survey of naturalistic epistemology which emphasizes importance of natural selection; by Michael Bradie and William Harms




» Existence - By Barry Miller.




» The Experience and Perception of Time - By Robin Le Poidevin.




» Experiments in Physics - By Allan Franklin, University of Colorado.




» Feminist Epistemology and Philosophy of Science - By Elizabeth Anderson.




» Feminist Ethics - By Rosemarie Tong, Davidson College.




» Feminist History of Philosophy - Survey of feminist writing on the philosophical canon; by Charlotte Witt.




» Feminist Perspectives on the Self - By Diana Meyers of the University of Connecticut.




» Finitism in Geometry - Approaches to geometry that do not presuppose an infinity of points; by Jean-Paul van Bendegem.




» Folk Psychology as a Theory - By Ian Ravenscroft, the Flinders University of South Australia.




» Folk Psychology as Mental Simulation - By Robert M. Gordon, University of Missouri.




» Formal Learning Theory - Discusses mathematical approaches to normative epistemology; by Oliver Schulte.




» Foundationalist Theories of Epistemic Justification - Survey of theories according to which knowledge and justified belief rest ultimately on a foundation of noninferential knowledge or justified belief. By Richard Fumerton of the University of Iowa.




» Francis of Marchia - Life and work of 14th century French theologian; by Christopher Schabel.




» The Free Rider Problem - Philosophical issues related to collective action; by Russell Hardin.




» Frege's Logic, Theorem, and Foundations for Arithmetic - By Edward N. Zalta of Stanford University.




» Friedrich Daniel Schleiermacher - Life and work of the 18th century German philosopher; by Michael Forster.




» Friedrich Nietzsche - Robert Wicks, University of Auckland.




» Fuzzy Logic - Survey of logical systems with a continuum of truth values; by Petr Hajek.




» Game Theory - Von Neumann and Morgensterns mathematical theory of bargaining, introduced by Don Ross University of Cape Town.




» George Santayana - Life and work of early 20th century Spanish-born American philosopher; by Herman Saatkamp.




» Giambattista Vico - Life and work of 18th century Italian philosopher; by Timothy Costelloe.




» Globalization - Social theory and philosophy issues in globalization; by William Scheuerman.




» Gottlob Frege - Edward N. Zalta of the Metaphysics Research Lab.




» Harriet Taylor Mill - Life and work of 19th century English philosopher and proponent of women's rights; by Dale E. Miller.




» Hegel, G. W. F. - Paul Redding of the University of Sydney.




» Higher-order Theories of Consciousness - Theories which explain conscious states by their relations to higher-order representations of them; by Peter Carruthers.




» Hilbert's Program - In 1921, David Hilbert made a proposal for a formalist foundation of mathematics, for which a finitary consistency proof should establish the security of mathematics. By Richard Zach.




» Historicist Theories of Rationality - By Carl Matheson of the University of Manitoba.




» Hobbes's Moral and Political Philosophy - Survey of work of Thomas Hobbes; by Sharon A. Lloyd.




» The Hole Argument - The hole argument is an attempt to illustrate how spacetime substantivalism causes errors in a large class of spacetime theories. By John D. Norton of the University of Pittsburgh.




» Holes - Short article by Roberto Casati of the École Polytechnique and Achille C. Varzi of Columbia.




» Holism and Nonseparability in Physics - Comprehensive article by Richard Healey of the University of Arizona.




» Homosexuality - Philosophical issues in homosexuality and queer theory; by Brent Pickett.




» Identity and Individuality in Quantum Theory - Assesses the metaphysical implications of quantum theory by considering the impact of the theory on our understanding of objects as individuals with well defined identity conditions. By Steven French of Leeds University.




» The Identity of Indiscernibles - Peter Forrest introduces the principle of analytic ontology formulated by Leibniz, stating that no two distinct substances exactly resemble each other.




» Identity Politics - History of the political activity and theorizing founded in the shared experiences of injustice of members of certain social groups; by Cressida Heyes.




» The Identity Theory of Mind - Evaluates the theory that holds that states and processes of the mind are identical to states and processes of the brain. By J. J. C. Smart of Monash.




» Identity Theory of Truth - When a truth-bearer is true, there is a truth-maker with which it is identical and the truth of the former consists in its identity with the latter. By Stewart Candlish.




» Immutability - The doctrine that God cannot undergo real change; by Brian Leftow.




» Impartiality - Survey of views on moral impartiality; by Troy Jollimore.




» Incompatibilist (Nondeterministic) Theories of Free Will - By Randolph Clarke.




» Inconsistent Mathematics - By Chris Mortensen, University of Adelaide.




» Indispensability Arguments in the Philosophy of Mathematics - By Mark Colyvan, University of Tasmania.




» Infinitary Logic - Infinitary Logic is a branch of formal logic where finitary formulae are replaced by potentially infinitary mathematical entities. By John L. Bell.




» Informal Logic - By Leo Groarke, Wilfrid Laurier University.




» Integrity - Discussion of integrity as a virtue term; by Damian Cox, Marguerite La Caze, and Michael Levine.




» Interpretation and Coherence in Legal Reasoning - Survey of theories on legal reasoning; by Julie Dickson.




» Intertheory Relations in Physics - Discussion of theory reduction in science; by Robert Batterman.




» Intuitionistic Logic - The principles L. E. J. Brouwer used in developing his intuitionistic mathematics. By Joan R. Moschovakis, UCLA.




» Johann Georg Hamann - Life and work of this German Enlightenment philosopher; by Gwen Griffith-Dickson.




» John Austin - Life and work of 19th century British legal philosopher and founder of legal positivism; by Brian Bix.




» John Buridan - Life and work of late Medieval philosopher; by Jack Zupko.




» John Duns Scotus - In-depth article on the life, work, and thought of John Duns Scotus. By Thomas Williams.




» John Locke - Influential 17th century British political philosopher.




» Jonathan Edwards - Life and work of 18th century American philosophical theologian; by William Wainwright.




» Justice as a Virtue - Survey of justice as a virtue from Plato to Rawls; by Michael Slote.




» Karl Leonhard Reinhold - Life and work of 19th century Austrian philosopher; by Dan Breazeale.




» Karl Popper - By Stephen Thornton from the University of Limerick.




» The Kochen-Specker Theorem - By Carsten Held.




» The Language of Thought Hypothesis - By Murat Aydede, surveying the arguments for and against the proposition that thoughts are expressed in a mental language.




» Laws of Nature - Philosophical theories about what it is to be a law; by John W. Carroll.




» Legal Punishment - Justifications of legal punishment; by Antony Duff.




» Leibniz on the Problem of Evil - By Michael J. Murray, Franklin & Marshall College.




» Leibniz's Philosophy of Mind - By Mark Kulstad and Laurence Carlin.




» Liberalism - Gerald F. Gaus outlines the general philosophical theory of liberalism.




» Libertarianism - Theory about the permissibility of non-consensual force violating property rights in external things and oneself; by Peter Vallentyne.




» Logic and games - Survey of game-theoretical approaches to logic; by Wilfrid Hodges.




» Logical Constructions - Bernard Linsky, University of Alberta.




» Logical Form - Introduction to logical form, surface and deep meaning. By Paul M. Pietroski, University of Maryland.




» Lord Shaftesbury [Anthony Ashley Cooper, Third Earl of Shaftesbury] - Life and work of 18th century English philosopher; by Michael Gill.




» Mally's Deontic Logic - Discussion of Ernst Mally's logic of obligation; by Gert-Jan Lokhorst.




» Many-Valued Logic - Survey article on multiple-valued logics, by Siegfried Gottwaldof of Leipzig University.




» The Many-Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics - Interpretation of quantum mechanics due to Hugh Everett according to which many universes exist in parallel at the same space and time; by Lev Vaidman.




» Maritain, Jacques - By William Sweet of St. Francis Xavier University.




» The Mathematics of Boolean Algebra - Survey of the algebra of two-valued logic; by J. Donald Monk.




» Max Stirner - Life and work of German philosopher of egoism; by David Leopold.




» Measurement in Quantum Theory - Study of the details and some of the implications of the measurement problem. By Henry Krips of the University of Pittsburgh.




» The Medieval Problem of Universals - By Gyula Klima.




» Medieval Theories of Analogy - By E. Jennifer Ashworth of the University of Waterloo.




» Medieval Theories of Conscience - The ability to act on the determinations of conscience is tied to the development of the moral virtues, which in turn refines the functions of conscience. By Doug Langston of the University of South Florida.




» Medieval Theories of Modality - By Simo Knuuttila of the University of Helsinki.




» Medieval Theories of Practical Reason - From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Anthony Celano.




» Medieval Theories of Properties of Terms - The theories of proprietates terminorum was the basis of medieval semantic theory; by Stephen Read.




» Medieval Theories of Relations - Survey of medieval views concerning the nature and ontological status of relations; by Jeffrey Brower.




» Mental Imagery - By Nigel Thomas of Leeds University.




» Mental Representation - According to the Representational Theory of Mind, psychological states are to be understood as relations between agents and mental representations. By David Pitt, CUNY.




» Mereology - The theory of parthood relations: of the relations of part to whole and the relations of part to part within a whole; by Achille Varzi.




» Miracles - Exploring Hume's argument and the religious significance. By Michael P. Levine of the University of Western Australia.




» Modal Fictionalism - Survey of the view that claims of necessity and possibility are to be construed as fictional claims; by Daniel Nolan.




» Modal Logic - Originally the study of deductive behavior of the expressions `it is necessary that' and `it is possible that', now also includes logics for belief, tense, the deontic (moral) expressions. By James W. Garson, University of Houston.




» The Modern History of Computing - Historical survey from Babbage onward; by B. Jack Copeland.




» Moral Dilemmas - Discusses cases of conflicting moral requirements; by Terrance McConnell.




» Moral Particularism - The claim that there are no defensible moral principles; by Jonathan Dancy.




» Moral Responsibility - Historical survey of the concept of moral responsibility; by Andrew Eshleman.




» Moral Skepticism - Survey of forms of scepticism about moral knowledge; Walter Sinnott-Armstrong.




» The Moral Status of Animals - Philosophical theories about the difference between animals and humans responsible for the moral status of humans. By Lori Gruen.




» Multiple Realizability - John Bickle discusses the contention that a given mental kind (property, state, event) is realized by distinct physical kinds.




» Naturalism in Legal Philosophy - Discusses naturalistic theses in the philosophy of law; by Brian Leiter.




» Naturalized Epistemology - The view that epistemology is of one piece with natural science; by Richard Feldman.




» Nicolas Malebranche - Life and work of French Cartesian philosopher; by Tad Schmaltz.




» Nineteenth Century Geometry - By Roberto Torretti, Universidad de Chile.




» Omnipotence - The theistic thesis that God has maximal power; by Joshua Hoffman and Gary Rosenkrantz.




» On The Nature of Law - Survey of theories on the conditions of legal validity including natural law theories and legal positivism; by Andrei Marmor.




» Ontological Arguments - Ontological arguments are arguments, for the conclusion that God exists, from premisses which are supposed to derive from some source other than observation of the world. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Graham Oppy.




» Original Position - The original position is a hypothetical situation in which rational calculators, acting as agents or trustees for the interests of concrete individuals, are pictured as choosing those principles of social relations under which their principals would do best. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Fred D'Agostino.